The Affect of Slavery on the Human Race

We began our topic on slavery by discussing how in the late nineteenth century, slavery had become entrenched in American society, both economically and politically.  The essential question for this lesson was, “How did slavery become entrenched in American society, both economically and politically, by the early 19th century?”  We started the lesson by reading clauses from the Founder’s Constitution.  These clauses described the bands on slavery on the societal effects.  For example in Article 1, Section 9, Clause 1, it states the following, “The migration of Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.”  This clause explains that minimally, for the next twenty-five years, people can import slaves, but after these twenty-five years, the congress can prohibit the importation of slaves.  However, the Congress can tax the importation of slaves for at least the next twenty-five years, but the tax cannot exceed ten dollars.  We then watched a video, Learning about the Cotton Gin, which depicted a man operating an original cotton gin.  The cotton gin was a machine that extracted seeds from cotton.  This revolutionary invention changed slavery.  Next, we read an article titled, “Cotton is King: Slavery is Entrenched in American Society.”  In the eighteenth century, people believed slavery was decreasing and going to be abolished because slaves escaped during the French and American revolutions and a slave master freed 10,000 slaves.  These facts made it seem likely that slavery was disappearing, but the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney caused slavery to increase dramatically instead.  Between the time Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1792 and 1794, the price of slaves doubled.  The prices of slaves was not the only factor growing, the number of slaves was, too.  We then completed an activity called, The Spread of Cotton and Slavery, which gave us some astonishing statistics.  In 1800, the total slave population in the United States was 893,000.  Most slaves were located east of the Appalachian Mountains.  But, by the year of 1860, the population of slaves had risen to 3,954,000 and slaves were now widespread throughout the southern states.  As more pounds of cotton were being produced throughout these decades, due to the cotton gin, the dollar value of exports also increased.  This caused the revenue in American to be dominated by the production of cotton. Slavery became entrenched economically because the cotton gin required that more slaves work on plantations, increasing the production and exportation of cotton.  Slavery also became entrenched politically in America by the nineteenth century because slaves were working on plantations all throughout the southern states.  Slavery was an awful time in history, that plagued America.

This image shows where cotton was produced in the year of 1800.

This image shows where slaves were located in the year of 1800.

This image shows the correlation between the spread of cotton and slavery by the year of 1860.

This graph shows the statistics of how much money was made in exports due to the amount of pounds of cotton made in that year.

The next topic we discussed in class was the morality of slavery.  The essential question was, “How does a system of slavery based on race affect human dignity?  What human characteristics does such a system tend to ignore?”  We defined human dignity as the value of human individuals.  The first activity we completed in class was reading three documents on Frederick Douglass, George Fitzhugh, and John brown.  Each group was assigned an individual, completed research on the figure, and found a picture of him, and decorated the portrait with descriptive phrases and words.  My group was assigned John Brown.  He brought eighteen men of mixed race to Harpers Ferry, Virginia.  He wanted to start a slave revolt, but instead his men were killed or captured and he was tried for treason.  He was eventually hung.  His idea sparked mixed reactions in the north and fear and revolts in the south.  John Brown was willing to kill for the sake of slavery; he believed a passive, peaceful technique would not abolish slavery.  John Brown is an example of someone who ignored their human dignity and ignored innocent people.  Frederick Douglas escaped slavery and became an abolitionist.  This document in his speech he gave on July 5, 1852, stated that people should not celebrating their freedom because not everyone is free; the slaves are still bonded to their masters.  George Fitzhugh was pro-slavery and wrote articles claiming that slaves lead better lives than free men because they were treated better than workers in the north who were free and getting paid. He believed that slaves were the happiest.  Of course, we recognize that Fitzhugh was completely oblivious to the reality of society, demonstrating a different effect of human dignity.  Slavery allowed some to live oblivious to the harsh circumstances they lived in.   We then read an articled titled, “Comparing 18th-Century Futa Jallon to Antebellum Mississippi.”   We learned that slavery in Futa Jallon, Africa was much different than slavery in Antebellum, Mississippi.  In Futa Jallon slavery was based on religion rather than race.  Slaves were non Muslims.  Slaves worked to obtain their own food and they could own property.  Also, if one of your parents were free you were also free and could reach the highest ranking in society.  Slavery in Mississippi was much different.  Slaves worked on cotton plantations and households.  Slaves in Antebellum were fed by their owners.  We then watched the movie, Prince Among Slaves.  This movie followed the life of Abdul Rahman, who was a twenty-six year old prince in Futa Jallon.  He was returning from a battle when he was captured by African slave traders and eventually brought to Natchez, Mississippi.  The movies follows his life in Mississippi and his fight for freedom.  The system of slavery tended to remove human dignity from people, not allowing them to value every individual.  This system tended to ignore human characteristics such as humanity, respect, kindness, and guilt.  If only more people could have used the system to fuel themselves to fight for the end of slavery in a dignified manner.

Level The Playing Field

In mid-nineteenth century America, women were oppressed.  Society created an image for all women; they were to stay at home in the shadows.  In the Sphere of Women, shown below, a woman is holding a child while looking on to make sure that her other children are learning.  In this image, the house is depicted as thoroughly clean without any objects or rooms that reflect the actual work the mother has to put into caring for her family.  This image demonstrates how women were expected to do all of the housework, without recognition.  The Rights of Women: Laws and Practices lists all of the laws and practices that restricted  women during this time period.  Many laws state the difficulties women had to overcome with when trying to divorce their husbands.  One law states, “Most courts grant custody of the children to men.  Alimony is sometimes awarded to women, but they are not allowed to sue in court to make him pay up.”  Even though women cared for the children, men gained custody which demonstrates extreme hypocrisy.  Another law that is mentioned that shows how society belittles women is, “In most states, it is legal for a man to beat his wife.”  Another practice that was stated was that, “It is considered improper for women to speak in public.”  In response to this oppression, women became involved in the Seneca Falls Convention, which resulted in the Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions.  This declaration stated all of the oppressive laws men had placed on women and how they should be resolved.  The responses to this Declaration were both negative and positive.  In the Oneida Whig article, August 1, 1848, it is stated, “If our ladies will insist on voting and legislating, where, gentlemen, will be our dinners and our elbows?”  This negative comment demonstrates how men saw women as less than them and therefore less equal to them.  Although some harbored negative responses to this declaration, others praised it.  For example, in the North Reformer article, August 3, 1848, it is declared that the Seneca Falls convention and declaration was “the first convention of any kind ever held, and one whose influence shall not ease until woman is guarantied all the rights now enjoyed by the other half of creation.”  Mid-nineteenth century society reacted in different ways to women’s demands for equality.  Some took a selfish standpoint and only thought of what would happen if women gained more rights; still viewing themselves as having a lesser social standing.  While others recognized the logic in women outcry for equality and acknowledged that women will not stop until they achieve their goal of gender equality.

This is an image of the Sphere of Women.

Presently, in the twenty-first century, I believe that society still reacts differently to men and women.  It has improved infinitely since the mid-nineteenth century, but I think there is still room for considerable improvement.  Men are still seen as the smarter and prominent leaders.  Boys dominate higher level math and science classes in school and there has yet to be a woman president.  Men are also paid more money than women, even when they have the exact same occupations and experience levels.  Men are given more opportunities than women.  There is no equivalent term for “slut” for a man; it seems that society only wants this hateful word to be used against women.  In the Philippines Pantene commercial, one can see how society views men and women as they take on the exact same position, but are labeled as completely different people.  Our society has made significant strides in reaching gender equality in the past centuries and should continue making improvements until men and women are seen as equals and real gender equality is achieved.

Changes Must Be Made

“Memorial to the Legislature of Massachusetts on the conditions of the prisons.”  Teach Us America. Org.  http://www.teachushistory.org/second-great-awakening-age-reform/resources/memorial-legislature-massachusetts.  1/11/15.

Lincoln. A woman in a cage. Medford. One idiotic subject chained, and one in a close stall for seventeen years. Pepperell. One often doubly chained, hand and foot; another violent; several peaceable now. Brookfield. One man caged, comfortable. Granville. One often closely confined; now losing the use of his limbs from want of exercise. Charlemont. One man caged. Savoy. One man caged. Lenox. Two in the jail, against whose unfit condition there the jailer protests.  

Besides the above, I have seen many who, part of the year, are chained or caged. The use of cages all but universal. Hardly a town but can refer to some not distant period of using them; chains are less common; negligences frequent; willful abuse less frequent than sufferings proceeding from ignorance, or want of consideration. I encountered during the last three months many poor creatures wandering reckless and unprotected through the country. Innumerable accounts have been sent me of persons who had roved away unwatched and unsearched after; and I have heard that responsible persons, controlling the almshouses, have not thought themselves culpable in sending away from their shelter, to cast upon the chances of remote relief, insane men and women. These, left on the highways, unfriended and incompetent to control or direct their own movements, sometimes have found refuge in the hospital, and others have not been traced. But I cannot particularize. In traversing the State, I have found hundreds of insane persons in every variety of circumstance and condition, many whose situation could not and need not be improved; a less number, but that very large, whose lives are the saddest pictures of human suffering and degradation. I give a few illustrations; but description fades before reality.

The author of this primary source, is Dorothea Dix (1802-1887).  She traveled to different prisons in Massachusetts that were keeping mental patients unjustly and recorded her findings.  She wrote this letter to the Legislature to try to get them to create appropriate mental institutions for the mentally ill.  She wanted to help the patients heal in a just way and felt that they will not get better in these torturous prisons, but rather in hospitals and homes.  Dorothea Dix is definitely believable and trustworthy, as she is a Sunday school teacher and is documented to have visited prisons in several towns. 

                When this document was produced, mentally ill patients were being put into prisons with criminals.  They were put into cages and chained and extremely ill-treated.  Dorothea Dix visited many of these prisons and witnessed this abuse.  She started the prison reform which worked to move patients to better suited locations.  Reading this document helped me understand how awfully people were tortured during this time period.  I can’t even fathom a woman being kept in a “closed stall” for seventeen years.  The way the mentally ill were treated in the 19^th century was so violent and scary.  Some of the limits of the document are the views of the patients; it only talks about what Dorothea saw.  However, I feel that this document gives me a complete overview of the prison reform.

                Dix claims that the mentally ill should not be kept in these conditions.  They need to be put into hospitals where they will be medically treated and helped.  The evidence that Dix uses to support this claim is that the patients never got better or improved in the prisons, but after being placed in better suited conditions they greatly improved.  Dorothea is trying to convince the reader, and the legislature, the necessity to help the patients be relocated out of these prisons and eliminate the injustice.  She is also strongly urging that if you see something that is severely wrong, you should try your best to change it.

Hero or Enemy of the People?

To continue our unit on Protecting Nations and Growing Democracy, we started a lesson on the seventh president of the United States, Andrew Jackson.  The essential question for this lesson is, “Is Andrew Jackson’s long-standing reputation as “the people’s president” deserved?  Why?  Why not?  This essential question is important because we, citizens of America, should observe the leaders of our country and ask ourselves if they are making decisions that benefit the people. As a class, we watched a Ted-Ed video and a Crash Course video describing Andrew Jackson’s life and reputation.  Then, we split up into groups of four and were each assigned a topic; the Bank War, Indian Removal, or Spoils System.  

My group was assigned the Indian Removal.  Each group then went through their documents, took notes, and created a project.  My group decided to make a PowerPoint. In our presentation we explained that Andrew Jackson did not deserve his reputation as “the people's president”.  This is because he was only concerned about the well being of the whites, but he completely disregarded the Indians and lead them to their death on the Trail of Tears.  After watching the presentation for the Bank War, it seems that Andrew Jackson was looking out for the poor and accommodating for them, thus being a people’s president, but at the same time he caused a class war between the poor and and rich and in the long run, a complete financial collapse.  Therefore, Andrew Jackson did not deserve his long standing reputation as “the people's president” since he was not looking out for the greater good for everyone.  The Spoils System clearly showed that Andrew Jackson did not deserve his reputation as a people’s president because he rewarded only his supporters with government positions, while ending jobs for hundreds of people at the same time.  Overall, after learning about the Indian, Bank War, and Spoils System, its apparent that Andrew Jackson did not deserve his long-standing reputation as “the people’s president.”

This is my group’s project on the Indian Removal.  

What is Democracy?

This unit is about Protecting Nations and Growing Democracy.  The second lesson in this unit is about the Rise of Democracy.  The essential question for this lesson is, “How should we define democracy?  How democratic was the United States in the early 1800s?”  In our groups, we each defined democracy.  My group defined democracy as a system of government where the power is vested in the people or through freely elected representatives.  After this, each group then went through each document and took notes.  Then we created a poster including the primary sources and explaining how each helped us define democracy.  

This a picture of the poster my group created.

This is a picture of my group's answers to the questions on The Dorr War.

Racial Discrimination Sparks Revolutions

This unit has been about revolutions all around the world during the 1800s.  For this lesson, we learned about Latin America Revolutions in Mexico, Brazil, and Gran Columbia.  The essential question for this lesson is, “Why is it essential to acknowledge human value regardless of race?  How are the events in the Latin America Revolutions evidence of this social imperative?”  This essential question is particularly important to talk about because race was an important factor in how our world made decisions over the past hundreds of years.  We should consider this question and strive to answer it because someone’s race effects all of what happens in their life, and if race can effect a revolution, then it needs to be discussed on a higher level.  People should be valued equally no matter what their race.  We studied the impact of race on the Latin American revolutions for independence in class by first learning about the different races that made up the population in Latin America.  We read a document discussing the percentages of different races in Latin America.  We found that less than 1% was made up of Peninsulares, or people born Europe, who were the wealthiest and attained the highest ranking jobs, while more than half of the population was made up Indian people.  People living in Latin America during this time were very concerned about their race and status.  In fact they were so obsessed that they made a Casta, which described almost every combination of races and what their offspring would be labeled as.  The overall social ladder in Latin America was, in the following order, the Peninsulares, Creoles, Mestizos, Mulattoes, Indians, and African Slaves.  After understanding how much race intertwined with the Latin American culture, we then split into groups and were each assigned a different Latin American revolution.  My group was assigned the revolution in Mexico.  In our groups we created a timeline of events.  When our timelines were complete we were then mixed into new groups that contained students from other groups so we could help teach each other about each other’s revolution.  Thoroughly discussing these revolutions in groups made us see how race was involved in each revolution. 

This is a diagram showing how much of each race made up the population in Latin America.

This is a picture of the Casta System showing several names of offspring when two types of races have children.

This is a picture of my group’s timeline of the Mexican Revolution.

My group selected the Mexican Revolution for independence to study.  The picture below is the timeline that we created.  After we shared our revolutions in our second groups, we then discussed commonalities and differences that we observed among the revolutions.  Some commonalities that we determined were, all of the revolutions were revolts against European countries, all became independent and split ties with Europe, the first rulers to take office after each country was declared independent did not stay in power for too long, and all of the revolutions took pace in the early 1800s.  We were only able to come up with two differences which were, the Brazilian revolution was the least violent, while the other two were very brutal and the revolution in Gran Columbia resulted in several new, separate countries.  However, later on there were smaller countries that branched off from Mexico, like Panama.  Each revolution took different routes to gaining their independence, but race was an issue in all three.  The Mexican revolution was launched by a priest, Miguel Hidalgo, who stated in the “Cry of Delores” that one of the goals of the revolution was racial equality in Mexico.  The revolution in Gran Columbia was started by Simon Bolivar, who was unhappy with discrimination in the country.  He, a crealoes was able to get a wide variety of different racial groups (Indians, Mestizos, and Mulattoes) to unite and fight against the Spanish together.  Unlike the Mexican and Gran Columbian revolutions, race came into in the Brazilian revolution after it had ended.  This was because Padro did not include enough rights in the Constitution, he only allowed Peninsulares to become members in his cabinet.  Because of this, there were rumors of another revolution for racial equality, and Padro flees.  The goals for each revolution were equally about gaining freedom from Europe and about freedom from racial discrimination.

                Today, racial discrimination has lessened, but it is still quite prevalent in society.   People still make judgments based on race in society today.   If someone is dark skinned, people sometimes judge them too quickly and assume they come from a poor background.  In an article about Ruby Bridges, who went to an all-white school back in the 1960s, it is stated that racial discrimination is still around today.  Ruby says, “You almost feel like you’re back in the ‘60s” because schools are segregated again.  Racial discrimination is still found in schools today which means that a person’s, even a child’s, race determines so much about them and their social status, when really it should only be a person’s character that should define them.  I think that is still extremely important to consider the issue of race in our lives today.  Race consumes too many people’s minds and creates a predetermined perspective that blocks them from seeing who someone is beyond their race.  If schools, a place where young students are supposed to learn academics, as well as, ethics, are truly starting to segregate again, then our society needs to seriously reengage our focus on the issue of race once again to stop this from happening.

The Complex Legacy of Toussaint Louverture

In the year of 1863 Abraham Lincoln abolished slavery.  This monumental change in history demonstrates his moral leadership.  In contrast, Hitler who lacked any redeeming quality, had thousands and thousands of people killed in hopes of creating a new race instead of declaring all people free and equal.  Toussaint Louverture was born in the 1740s.  As a young slave he worked as a herder, coachmen, and an overseer of fellow slaves working in the field.  He was eventually granted freedom by his owner and then decided to rent a small coffee plantation.  In 1789, Toussaint emerged as a leader during the rebellions that resulted from the white refusal to end slavery in Saint Domingue.  He encouraged slaves to fight for their freedom.  However, in 1794 France abolished all slavery in the colonies and Toussaint switched his allegiance to France.  However, when Napoleon became emperor he planned to reinstate slavery in Saint Domingue.  Toussaint switched sides yet again and lead an invasion of 21,000 French troops, but was captured and taken to France.  Ironically, Napoleon pulled his troops out of the battle, resulting in a victory for Saint Domingue.  Sadly, Saint Domingue's beloved leader was dying of pneumonia in a French jail.  Toussaint would never know that on January 1, 1804, Haiti, Saint Domingue’s new name, would become an independent nation.  Merriam-Webster defines legacy as, "something that happened in the past or that comes from someone in the past."  Toussaint Louverture should be remembered for his incredible legacy, as a liberator of slaves, ruler of Saint Domingue, and military commander.  Although Toussaint should be remembered for all of these roles, his role as a liberator of slaves is most important.

One of Louverture’s greatest roles in his lifetime was as a liberator of slaves.  In 1791, Toussaint joined the slave revolt in northern Saint Domingue (A).  He was a doctor for the troops and also commanded a small group of rebel soldiers (A).  Toussaint was on Saint Domingue's side at this time, but when France abolished slavery in its colonies, Toussaint and his troops stopped their revolt and switched their allegiance to France (A). Toussaint even went to the length of organizing an army against the British, who were nervous about the ideas of freedom spreading to their colony in Jamaica (A).  Toussaint switched his allegiance to Saint Domingue once again, when there were rumors of Napoleon reinstating slavery by France (A).  All of these actions show that Toussaint obtained and maintained the leadership goals and abilities that would allow him to fight for the abolishment of slavery.  In November 1797, Toussaint writes a letter to the French Directory.  He threatens, "We have known how to confront danger to our liberty, and we will know how to confront death to preserve it" (B).  This threat demonstrates Toussaint's loyalty to helping the slaves gain their freedom even if death is the result. This letter's main purpose is to show Toussaint's role as a liberator of slaves. Article 3, of the Saint Domingue Constitution of 1801, signed by Toussaint Louverture, states "There cannot exist slaves in this territory, servitude is therein forever abolished.  All men are born, live and die free and French" (C).  By signing this Constitution, Toussaint showed that he wanted freedom for slaves.  Toussaint’s role as a liberator of slaves should be included in his legacy because he consistently supported the side that was fighting for the abolishment of slavery throughout his entire life.

Toussaint was a liberator of slaves, but he also became the Ruler of Saint Domingue in the year 1798 (A).  As the new ruler of Saint Domingue, Toussaint had many responsibilities and expectations to withhold to in order to make his people happy.  Article 14 of the Saint Domingue Constitution states, “The colony being essentially agricultural cannot suffer the least disruptions in the works of its cultivation” (C).  By signing this Constitution, Toussaint shows he is going to make sure Saint Domingue prospers.   He knows that in order to maintain the nation’s economy, the plantations needed to be maintained, as well.  He promises that the workers on each plantation will share the revenue with their owner (C).  This promise didn’t completely satisfy the people because even though they were being paid for their labor, they were doing the same exact work as they were doing when they were slaves.  This caused revolts to break out and on November 25, 1801, Toussaint Louverture announces the “Proclamation, 25 November 1801.”  This proclamation addresses the punishments that will happen to anyone who disobeys the laws.  One of the several punishments Toussaint puts in place is, “Any manager or driver of a plantation upon which a foreign cultivator [field worker from another plantation] shall have taken refuge shall denounce him to the captain or commander of the section within 24 hours under penalty of one week in prison” (D).  This states that if an owner of a plantation does not report a refuge worker, than they will have to serve one week in prison.  All of these punishments, although harsh, show Toussaint’s determination to make sure the people of Saint Domingue follow the law.  Toussaint may have been a strict ruler, but he was also a great ruler because he always made sure Saint Domingue, would always prosper.  His great leadership skills made him a remarkable ruler, and should therefore be added to his legacy.

Toussaint was a great ruler of Saint Domingue, but he was also a very talented military commander.  In Madison Smartt Bell’s, Toussaint Louverture: A Biography, 2007, Hyacinthe Moyse’s, Toussaint’s nephew, revolt in the Northern plantations against plantation farming is discussed.  Bell writes the following about Toussaint, “he passed through the rebel zone he ordered the mutineer regiments on parade and summoned certain men to step out of the ranks and blow their brains out….Toussaint ordered Moyse’s arrest and had him confined in the fort of Port de Paix” (E).  Making rebel soldiers commit suicide in front of each other and arresting his nephew and ordering his execution by firing squad, does make Toussaint appear to be a malevolent person, but these acts, although ruthless, demonstrate his role as a strong military commander.  Toussaint knew how to direct his soldiers and utilize the right war tactics that made him an unforgettable military commander.  In The Black Man, His Antecedents, His Genius, and His Achievements, 2nd edition, by William Wells Brown, there is a section titled “A Description of Toussaint Louverture.”  This section describes Toussaint’s role as a military commander.  Brown states, “his superior knowledge of the character of his race, his humanity, generosity, and courage, had gained the confidence of all whom he had under his command” (F).  Toussaint’s commanding authority and strong will made people follow him and his orders.  Napoleon wanted to take control of Saint Domingue once again, so between December 1801 and February 1802, France invaded Saint Domingue.  Toussaint and his troops used their guerilla tactics to defeat the French (A).  Brown recounts this amazing war tactic, “Toussaint and his generals at once abandoned the towns, and betook themselves to the mountains, those citadels of freedom in St. Domingue, where the blacks have always proved too much for the whites” (F).  Toussaint and his troops burned the city, so the French would not be able to find any resources that would help them win the invasion, and then fled to the mountains where the French would have a disadvantage because they were not familiar with the territory.  Not only did Toussaint have a courageous character that made him a great military commander, he was also very smart when it came to war tactics.  Toussaint’s role as a military commander should be added to his legacy because of his smart tactical abilities and persuasive characteristics.

       

Toussaint Louverture was a remarkable man.  He grew up as a slave in his beloved Saint Domingue, and then went on to become a liberator of slaves, ruler of Saint Domingue, and a military commander.  All of these roles contribute to Toussaint’s legacy.  He moved from Saint Domingue’s side, to the French’s side, and then back to Saint Domingue’s side. Although it seems that Toussaint was inconsistent, he was actually being quite consistent because he was always fighting for the side that was for the abolishment of slavery. This shows how important his role as a liberator of slaves was in history.  Toussaint also became the ruler of Saint Domingue and governed the nation so that it would prosper, even if this meant enforcing strict laws that resulted in revolts, at times.  His legacy didn’t stop there, he was also a very skillful military commander, making decisions that may have seem ruthless at the time, but were actually very intelligent in terms of military tactics.  There is a lot to remember about Toussaint Louverture, but his role as a liberator of slaves is most important to his legacy.  This is because his entire life was focused on helping slaves gain their freedom which he accomplished.  Becoming a ruler of a nation or a military commander was never part of his plan; these roles came along to aid in and augment his key role as a liberator of slaves.  

Source:

Background Essay.

“Merriam-Webster.”  http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/legacy.  11/13/14.  

DocumentA.  Created from various sources.

Document B.  Toussaint Louverture, “Letter to the French Directory, November 1797.”

Document C.  The Saint Domingue Constitution 1801. Signed by Toussaint Louverture in July 1801.

Document D.  Toussaint Louverture, “Proclamation, 25 November 1801.”

Document E.  Madison Smartt Bell, Toussaint Louverture: A Biography, 2007.

Document F.  William Wells Brown, “A Description of Toussaint Louverture,” from The Black Man, His Antecedents, His Genius, and His Achievements, 2nd edition, 1863.  Engraving of Toussaint Louverture, 1802.